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I 



MECHANICAL 
DRAFTlls G 



PRACTICAL GUI I) 
NEAT, CORRECT ^D 
LEGIBt DRAWING 












Class. 
Book.. 



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Gojjyright'N?. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



The Technic 
of Mechanical Drafting 



A PRACTICAL GUIDE 
TO NEAT. CORRECT AND LEGIBLE DRAWING 



By CHARLES W. REINHARDT 

Chief Draftsman Engineering News 



SECOND EDITION 



New York: 

THE ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING COMPANY 

1904.. 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 
AUG 6 1904 
(1 Copyright Entry 

CLASS R-XXo. No. 

COPY B 



Copyright, 1900, 
Chas. W. Keinh 4 vbdt. 



Copyright. 1904, 
Chas. W. Reinhabdt 



TMP96-024387 



PR EFACE. 

In the following pages the writer has endeavored to give to the busy draftsman a thoroughly practical, 
common-sense guide to good mechanical drafting. Q No attention whatever has been paid to the mathematics 
involved. 

Many draftsmen, after having carefully lard out their drawings, commit the error of slighting them in 
the execution ; sometimes to such an extent as to render them all but illegible to the men in the shops. The 
constructing engineer frequently finds himself handicapped in a similar manner. After wrestling with the 
meaning of portion of a drawing, he finds that other sections or elevations do not correspond with the part 
first consulted. He has to make his own deductions, and in reading between the fines, as it were, perhaps fin- 
ally arrives at some sort of conclusion regarding the correct shape of the parts outlined, or, as a last resort, 
goes in search of the draftsman. Such inconsistencies, if they may be termed so, unnecessarily increase 
mental labor in reading and interpreting a design, and it will be the special province of this book to try to 
eradicate them. 

While deprecating any needlessly elaborate finish, the writer advises the use of just sufficient shading 
and finishing touches to render a drawing thoroughly comprehensible, and to preclude any possible ambiguity. 

The illustrations in this work, quite a number of which have appeared in the columns of " Engineering 
News," are inserted to demonstrate the points involved, and have been reduced more or less in size so as to 
save space. They may, however, be copied by enlarging to about three or four times their linear dimensions. 

It is of course to be understood, that this book is not a manual for beginners exactly ; it serves its pur- 
pose best, where used by the draftsman who is familiar with the mathematical principles of mechanical draft- 
ing. It will then, as the writer hopes, prove a valuable aid to the rapid production of neat, correct and legible 
drawings. 

New York, December, 1899. 

CHAS. W. REINHARDT. 



PEEFAOE TO SECOND EDITION. 

The supplementary matter added to the present edition thoroughly brings this work up to-date. The 
new chapter on " Lettering" will prove a welcome addition, as also the matter on " Topographical Drafting." 
The latter gives a complete outline for that study and the tabulated topographical conventions together with 
the corrected standards of section-lining, will be found useful by the draftsman, who is willing to improve 
himself. 

July, 1904. C. W. K. 




SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS. 




CHAPTI 

General Instructions. 

Page. 

Preliminaries: TnV 7 

Handling and Sharpening of Fen. 8 

Paper ; Tracing Cloth ; Erasures 8 

Arrangement of Views 9 

CHAPTER II. 

Outlining. 

Full and Broken Lines 9 

Modifications 10 

Order of Procedure 12 

CHAPTER III. 

Lettering. 

Principles of Construction 12 

Pens. Arrangement 13 

Extended and Condensed Style 11 

Lettering on Curves : Abbreviations 11 

Borders, Titles 15 

CHAPTER IV. 

Outline Shading. 

Principles 15 

Relative Strength of Lines 16 



Page. 

Mode of Procedure 16 

Straight Line Shading 17 

Circle and Curve Shading 18 

CHAPTER V. 

Section Lining. 

Definitions: Current Stvle 20 

Black Sections 22 

Method of Execntion 22 

Description of Standards 21 

Modification: Reinforced Concrete 26 

Section-Lining for Electrical Drafting 28 

CHAPTER VI. 
Curved Surface Shading. 

Theory. Procedure 29 

Cylinder and Cone Shading 29 

Shading of Elbow 30 

Shading of One Side Onlv 31 

Shading of Piles ". 32 

CHAPTER VII. 
Shading of Inclined Surfaces. 

Light and Dark Sides Contrasted 32 

Connection with Curved Surfaces. 32 

Freehand Shading 33 



CHAPTER VIII. 
Topographical Drawing. 

Page. 

Shaded Outlines 31 

Features: Order of Procedure 35 

Water Shading ; Coast Hatching 35 

Contours 36 

Special Distinctions 3i 

Mountain Work 37 

CHAPTER IX. 

Character and Finish. 

Sketchy Touches of Stons and Wood 39 

Characteristic Breaks 10 

Shading of Rivets and Bolts *1 

Shading of Screw-Threads H 

Treatment of Architectural Drawing 12 

PLATES. 

Standards for Section-Lining L to TV. 

Standards Applied V. 

Curved and Inclined Surfaces V L to TIL 

Topographical Drawing Vlll. 

Character and Finish TT to XI. 



CHAPTER I. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 



THE drawing of any object upon either drawing paper, tracing 
linen or paper requires clean-ciit, sharp outlines. It is a mis- 
take to suppose that very thin outlines give an especially neat 
appearance to any drawing. Main outlines should always be 
drawn with the nibs of the ruling pen slightly separated, which 
" setting " will give a fixed width of line and allow an uninter- 
rupted flow of ink. When refilling the pen, care should be taken 
to readjust it to the proper strength of line. To those unaccus- 
tomed to this somewhat delicate task, the use of a '"lever" pen, 
which can be obtained from almost every instrument dealer, is 
recommended. This pen. as shown by Fig. 1, opens with a lever, 
and will, after refilling, yield 
the same strength of line as 
before. In regard to the ink 
to be used, the author would Fig. 1 . 

recommend nothing but the "waterproof" kind, a somewhat refrac- 
tory medium to the uninitiated; but this ink will not smudge or rub 
off while being handled, a quality which the ordinary inks do not 
possess. After refilling, the pen should be tried a couple of times 
along the grain of a clean portion of the drawing board, or across 



the fingers of the left hand — a perhaps objectionable but always 
effective expedient— to insure a "starting" of the flow of ink. 
The actual work with the pen, owing to the rapid drying of the 
waterproof quality, must of course be commenced immediately 
afterwards. 

A ruling pen with long, straight nibs will be the most satisfactory 
instrument for working with waterproof ink. The draftsman choos- 
ing a pen should open the same lightly and look through between 
the nibs against the light. The two outer curves, " a " and " b " 
(Fig. 2), shoidd in a good pen be very flat, coming down 
to a long and very thin point, as illustration shows, and 
not appear as at " c : ' and ' ; d." The ink should never 
be allowed to run out of the slot and gather on the out- 
side of the two points, as will happen when the pen is 
screwed up so tight that the points touch, a pernicious 
practice indulged in by some draftsmen in the belief 
that the very finest lines can only thus be obtained. In 
reality the points of the pen cut into the surface of the paper and 
deposit the particles of ink rubbed off from the outside of the 
points, yielding thereby a faint, grayish, ragged hue, which will not 



Fig. 2. 



reproduce well either by blue-printing or photography. A very 
good, black and clean-cut thin line can be obtained by leaving the 
nil is just a trifle apart, which procedure will cause a free deposit of 
liquid ink that will invariably reproduce by either of the pro- 
cesses mentioned. The width of the opening cannot be given 
definitely : it should vary according to the style of drawing and the 
individual inclination of the draftsman. The instrument should be 
kept bright and clean and never be allowed to accumulate a coat- 
ing of dry ink at the points. Wipe, or it' necessary scrape off. 
All-around cleanliness forms one of the principal requisites for the 
successful draftsman. 

A worn-down ruling pen can be put into proper trim again by 
the draftsman himself through the exercise of a little patience and 
care. The pen, which always wears off, as shown in Fig. 3, is ap- 
plied to the oilstone, which every draftsman should pos- 
sess, and the points ground off uniformly to the original 
rounded outline and of course dulled, as shown, by pass- 
ing the pen over the stone, as if to draw lines upon it, 
first inclined, then gradually rising to the upright posi- 
tion. By judicious grinding of the outer sides of the two 
points the requisite thinness and knife-edge is finally 
restored. A pen may in this manner be kept in good 
repair a considerable length of time, until it is finally 
ground down so far that the thinning of the points would require 
too much time to be a paying operation any longer. 

The paper to be used may either possess a fine-grained or coarse 
(egg-shell) surface ; special recommendations in that respect would 
be beyond the scope of this work ; tracing paper or tracing cloth 
can be obtained in excellent quality from almost any dealer. As 
regards the most suitable side of the latter material to work up- 



Fig. 3. 




Sectional Plan A-B. 



on, the writer would ad- 
vise the use of the smooth 
or inner side for various 
reasons, one of which is that 
on the back or unglazed 
side the lines will invariably 
become ragged or broken, 
as there is no continuous 
surface for the ruling pen 
to glide over. Erasures, 
furthermore, are almost im- 
possible upon that side. 
The inner or smooth side 
presents a glass-like surface, 
which at first may not read- 
ily take the ink ; a little brisk 
rubbing with powdered pum- 
ice will somewhat deaden 
this gloss and admirably pre- 
pare the surface for the ink. 
Home tracing cloths abound 
i:i "'leaky" spots, the ink 
soaking through at those 
places, especially where 
heavy lines are used. Such 
blots can be erased with a 
sharj> penknife on the re- 
verse side after the draw- 
ing is finished. Ordinary 
erasures on paper are usually 



made with, the same medium, after which, a good artist's rubber 
may be applied. Erasures of large sections of ink lines or blotches 
on tracing cloth can be splendidly effected by using pumice powder 
sprinkled over the parts to be erased; brisk rubbing with the tip 
of the finger, or perhaps a " circular eraser." while gradually replac- 
ing the discolored powder by fresh pumice will quickly clean the 
part in such a manner that it can be lettered or drawn upon with- 
out the least inconvenience : the cloth has retained its surface and 
will not blot after this treatment. Smaller areas, as, for instance, a 
short portion of a single line close to another, can be treated in a 



similar manner through a slit of proper size cut into a piece of trac- 
ing cloth placed on top, which covers and protects the adjacent parts. 
In arranging the different parts of a drawing on a sheet, follow 
the ordinary common sense rule. Place elevation and plan in 
vertical projection ; if a top plan, place above ; if a bottom plan, 
below the elevation. If an end elevation of the right hand end of 
the object is to be shown, project it from that end of the side ele- 
vation, etc. Enlarged details of some parts can, where properly 
captioned, be placed as " fillers *" almost anywhere. The foregoing 
is to a certain extent illustrated bv Fig. 4. 



CHAPTER II. OUTLINING. 



THE visible lines which define the edges of any object repre- 
sented should, after having been carefully penciled in, inva- 
riably be drawn full. For construction, "invisible" or projection 
lines, where such are desired to be shown, dashes about -^ inch 
long with spaces of T \ inch between should be used. Two or more 
parallel lines of that order placed close together, defining, for in- 
stance, the thickness of a plate, etc., should be ruled in so as to 
"break joints,"' as shown in Fig. 5. In a well executed drawing 
the dashes or spaces of these "invisible " lines should be uniform in 
size, a rule which is only too often disregarded, and as a consequence 
will cause a peculiarly •"slipshod"' appearance of any drawing, (see 
specimen, Fig. 6). 



Center lines, axial lines, datum lines and lines of section should 
invariably be represented by dash and dot lines, the dashes twice 
as far apart as those of the construction lines, and the oblong dots 

placed midway be- 

Construction Lines. r?-H^ tween dashes. Such 

lines should, for the 
sake of distinctness, 
always begin and 
end with a dot. Oc- 



Cerrter b'ne. 

16 to 20 

Dimension Line. 



iT 
._LJ_. 



Alternative Line. 



A. 



Fig. 5. 



casions may arise 
where the introduction of a line of this order, containing two or more 
dots between dashes, may become desirable for a specific purpose. 



The writer notices that the average draftsman is especially care- 
less as regards execution of this kind of lines, the dashes often 



-/?,# 



being made solongand 
so irregular in size 
that a line of this order 
cannot always be recog- 
nized as such (see Fig. 
T). 

Dimension lines 
should consist of ob- 
long dots orrery short 
dashes, about 16 or 20 
to the inch. A suit- Fi £- 6 ' 

able blank space in the center should be left for the dimension 
proper. As a certain amount of practice with the ordinary ruling 
pen is required before long lines of that order can be drawn evenly, 
a " dotting pen " might with advantage be employed. Lines which 
indicate alternative positions of an object should consist of half 

length "construc- 




Fig. 7. 



tion " dashes. I n 

regard to construc- 
tion lines, and es- 
pecially dimension 
lines, the ordinary practice differs from the rules laid down here, 
very thin black ink, pencil or red ink lines being employed to 
denote those lines. At the same time the tendency in using such 
Symbols is to give construction lines a secondary character, and 
to make dimension lines least prominent. A drawing for photo- 
reproduction therefore, which is executed in pure black, as it pro- 
perly should, certainly ought to contain such distinctive lines also 



in that color. Where rather small objects are to be shown as 
" invisible," the rule given for the construction of such lines may 
be modified and the lines short- 
ened as necessary, so as to 
outline corners and distinctive 
features, as shown in Fig. 5A. 
The first dash of projection 
lines proper, to which category 
also the abutting lines between 
dimension lines belong, should 
never be permitted to touch 
the " visible " or full outline of 
an object, as otherwise the con- 
tinuity of same be interfered p- 8 
with, as shown in Fig. 8, with which Fig. 9, as corrected, is com- 
pared. Here we see that the values of the dimension and, of some 

„ j center lines 

mm 





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in Fig. 8 virtu- 



ally have to be deducted by 
the eye in interpreting this 
drawing, whereas in Fig. 9 
the same number of dimen- 
sions, etc., do not in any way 
interfere with the visible 
outlines of the object, which 
is allowed to stand out clear 
and distinct. 

When quite a number of 
broken lines are to be used, 
making a rather confused tangle, it will also be advisable never to 
let a dash of such line cross solid outlines ; this will have the effect 



10 



of keeping tlie latter more distinct, and will aid the 
reader of the drawing in easily forming a mental 
picture of the outlined objects in relation to the 
hidden or invisible parts. This point is fairly well 
illustrated in Fig. 12, which represents the rear end 
of a locomotive. The heavier outlines, which in 
that figure are shown to heighten the effect desired, will be ex- 
plained subsequently. Notwithstanding the fact that the full 
outlines show the objects almost in relief, as it were, the "invisi- 
ble" lines, while not interfering with the full ones, are not in the 
least slighted ; the roof beams of the cab, the stays, fire brick arch 
and the rocking grate of the fire-box, the several levers with at- 
tachments, etc., 
show very clear- 
ly, as if through 




En (3 

News.> 



Fig. 10. 



as a close study of the illustration will show. 




transparent ma- oniM?anK 
terial. 

A good exam- 
ple of "invisible" 
and " alternat- 
ive " lines con- 
trasted is given 
under Fig. 10, a 
drawing of a fold- 
ing ear-step ; the 
latter kind of 
lines indicates 
graphically the 
parts folded up, 



11 



In finishing a drawing first of all should be drawn in the curves 
that are to be connected with other lines. Then the horizontal lines 
or those nearly so may be drawn ; and next the vertical and diago- 
nal ones. Curved lines on any part of a drawing that are not inti- 
mately connected with adjacent parts may be inked in at the drafts- 
man's convenience. Short portions of curves, wdiich cannot easily 

be matched by the curve 
ruler, afford valuable prac- 
tice in freehand drawing 

and should unhesitatingly 

Incorrect. Correct. he drawn in that manner, 

F'g- 1 1 ■ after making sure that 

the writing pen used for such an emergency is pliable enough and 
not too fine, so as to give the requisite strength of line. A smooth 
joining of curves with straight lines is essential (see Fig. 11). 
Small circles, such as designating rivets or bolt-heads, may in cases 



cover every 



be drawn last of all. Definite rules, however, to 
instance cannot be given here. 

After the outlines of the drawing have thus been secured, 
the projection lines are ruled in ; the dimension lines are then 
placed between them, leaving suitable blank spaces for dimen- 
sion numerals. If outline shading is desired, this work will be 
next in order, beginning again with the curved and horizontal 
shade lines, and continuing with the vertical and diagonal 
lines. 

The lettering of the drawing should then be placed ; care must 
be taken not to make the notations, descriptive matter and dimension 
numerals too small — a very frequent mistake. Good lettering and 
the manner of distributing same over the drawing materially adds 
to the neat appearance and clearness of any sheet; the reverse 
is unfortunataly only too often noticeable. A competent drafts- 
man should also be as expert letterer. 



CHAPTER III. LETTERING. 



TpOR a thorough course in the principles of consti*uction of free- 
-*- hand lettering for working drawings, the mode of procedure 
and sequence of strokes, etc., the reader is referred to the author's 
" Lettering for Draftsmen, Engineers and Students" (The D. Van 
Xostrand Publishing Co., New York). We intend in the present 



volume, however, to show a few suitable alphabets, (inclined and 
upright gothic) which adapt themselves to the lettering of almost 
any kind of drawing. These gothic styles, as shown, can all be 
constructed with a single application of the pen, are easily executed 



and look neat and business-like on a drawing. 



Where a drafts- 



12 



mau has learned to construct those styles properly, he will find no 
difficulty after a while to do more elaborate lettering, as the funda- 
mental shapes and proportions of the letters have become familiar 
to him, and are produced like ordinary carefully written or cojfied 
English script. 

The pens which are used for this style of lettering should yield a 



a b c d efgh I j k Imnopqrstu v w xy z 

A BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWX Y Z 

3 4;li";^m' f 23 4-56 78 9 O & II METV VI KX etc. 

Inclined Lettering, Used for Descriptive Matter. 

abcdefghij klmnopq rstuvwxyz 

ABCDEFGHU KLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
Condensed Style. & I 234567890 E.xi~e nded 

Upright Lettering, Suitable for Captions . 



I 
Correct. 



->k~ 



H-vH 



Fig. 13. 

uniform strength of line. As regards the quality or grade of pens 
to be used the reader is again referred to the publication quoted 
above. The inclined lettering " cap and lower case " shown on Fig. 
13 should invariably be used for all descriptive matter, such as 
dimensions, notations, etc. The upright style " cap and lower case" 

may be employed to emphasize names of 
principal divisions or to designate titles 
or captions of some portions of a draw- 
ing. The dimension numerals of a draw- 
ing should be placed boldly within the 
blank space left previously in the dimension line, or, space not per- 
mitting, set them outside and point by a dotted reference line to 



the center of the space so designated (see Fig. 14). The two sides 
of arrowheads, which should either be pointing outward or toward 
the dimensions, should be made with a fairly fine, pliable pen in 
gradually increasing and finally de- 
creasing strength of stroke, making 
sure of a sj-mmetrical head and a 
good, clean point, as 
shown enlarged in Fig. 
15. The last dots of a 
dimension line against 
the abutting lines 
might also be omitted, Fi £- 15 - 

so as to aid the effect desired. The fraction numerals 
of dimensions should never be made less than -| the 
height of the whole numbers ; they should, in point 
of fact, be made extended, so as to seemingly make 
them appear larger, as shown in one of the following 
figures. 
The wording of the descriptive matter (inclined style) should be 
well distributed ; indeed, a good draftsman is able to combine the 
useful with the artistic aspect by properly arranging that kind of 



>^ 



Incorrect. 



\ ' J 



J 



A. 
B. 



For Traction i <lncormt) 
Increaser i ' 

For Traction \ (L;nestai fy r 
increaser I a P art > 



lettering. Just a word or two in 






It'I „-i.«,i. 

->|F|«-2->i'^K 

>2T- ~-M 



F'g- 14. 



regard to the arrangement of the 
fines of a notation : Either center 
them neatly, or, better still, stagger 
them ; by no means, have them ap- 
pear as in Fig. 16, A and B. Take 
care to get the different fines com- 
posing a note very close together, so as to facilitate reading. 
In the author's "Lettering," mentioned above, the "extended" 



For Traction y , r .. 
Increased (Correc ° 

Fia. 16. 



13 



T 



r 

r 



u c 



style of inclined and upright script is brought quite prominently to 
the student's notice. It may become at times desirable to spread 
a word or words over quite a large space : the single letters are 
spaced further apart, and the letters themselves drawn extended; 

so as to comfortably fill the allotted 
k (incorrect) spaces.^ In Fig. 17, the correct way of 
• extending spaces as well as letters, is 

shown, as also the one-sided method of 
F 'S- 17, only increasing the width of spaces 

without extending the width of the letters. A somewhat surprising 
effect is noticed when we compare the extended with the ordinary 
and condensed styles of lettering of exactly the same height, as 
shown on Fig. 18. Here the former type appears almost twice 
the height of the 
latter, and it L-ine of Bluffs extending North and Jouth. 

demonstrates to fsj ew YORK St AT EL FOREST RESERVE. 

what extent such KA , c R . , 

Manhattan ouspension - Bridge, 
styles maybe _, ' 

utilized on one 

and the same drawing, for the purpose of giving to some parts more 

prominence than to others. 

Lettering on curves, as in map work along a sinuous water-course, 

should always be 
executed t o con- 
form with the dif- 
ferent radii of the 
compound curves, 
that is to say, the 
vertical stems of 

such letters should be placed truly radial. Where inclined letter- 




ing is to be used to designate such curves, allowance will have to 
be made for the angle of such downstrokes with the vertical, as Fig. 
19 illustrates. Where the curvature of a river-course is at points 
too sudden to admit of an easy continuous curving of its name along 
its side, such portions may be disregarded and the curves eased. 

Fig. 20 contains a list of contractions and abbreviations which 
are most commonly employed in lettering working drawings ; as 

6'0"Diam. Circumf. 12.1 '"" Cu.it. 1.4% Grade 
3'0"Rad. EI+0.0 4-.Zsq.ff. 3.5yds. A = 8°45'iy 

I2'7^'0.to0.(0utto0ut) IO'0"C.toC. 4'3i"B.toB.(BacktoBack) 
R.5.,L.S., (Right or LeftSide) H.W.L.,M.W.L, L.W.L.fHigh, Mean, Low 
Water Level) 6"x 8" Y. P. (Yellow Pine) W.O. (White Oak) 6.5 IbS. 79 F. 
ReV.permtn., R.p.m. (Revolutions per Minute) HP. ( Horse - Power) 
E.HP. (Electrical HP.) Eff. HR (Effective HP) B. HP. (Brake HR) LHP. 
(Indicated HR) H.p., I. p., Lp. Cyl?(High Pressure, Intermediate R, 
LowR Cylinders) M.e.p. (Mean effective Pressure) C.R.5haftg '(Cold 'Polled 
Shafting) C.S. ( Cast Steel ) C.I., W.I. (Cast or Wrought Iron ) 

/f°or/f°Rod } 2L 5 ,5x3H" /-6T; 2-/07* 4-6" Z s ; 
I, §' 'Web PI, 5pl.PI., 5pi.l?.;Diaph. (Diaphragm) Latt. Bar } 

LaC 'g L S ; Kw. (Kilowatt) Amp. (Amperes) f (finish) t (turn) 

Hydr. 6r. (Hydrau/ic 6rade ) Portl. Cem. Cone. /•' 2 •' 4 

(Portland Cement Concrete; I Part Cement to 2 Parts Sand & 4- PartsStone) 

Fig. 20. 
some draftsmen are at times at a loss for correct or logical abbre- 
viations, the writer thought it worth while to compile the list here 
given. Some of the abbreviations here given can, of course, only 
be employed where their use precludes any possible ambiguity. 

Captions should invariably be given; every separate projection 
should be named distinctly in upright lettering, as, for instance, 
Plan, Elevation, Transverse Section, Enlarged Detail " C," etc. Not 



14 




only the general appearance of the drawing is improved by using 
specific captions, but additional clearness is gained. The main title 
in the lower right hand corner of the sheet or at its base is placed 
after a border hue has been ruled in. Make the border consist of 
single or perhaps double moderately heavy hues ; the writer would 
not recommend the use of any ornate design for borders ; they are 
as a rule antiquated and take much valuable time to construct. 

In regard to the general title of the sheet, few, if any, directions 
will be given here, as almost every book on lettering in the market 
takes up this subject in a fairly thorough fashion. Let such a title 
be composed of simple, easily formed letters, preferably Gothic, 
made consjjicuous enough for the main appellation of the subject 
secondary in size and body for names of engineers, etc., and have it 



supplemented by a mention of the scale of the drawiug, lettered 
still smaller in size, with the actual scale attached. Underlining of 
words or notations on a drawiug is bad practice and should only be 
resorted to after all other distinctions have been exhausted. The 
writer's book on freehand lettering gives reasonably fair examples 
of Gothic and Roman large letters suitable for titles, as also of 
actual specimens of titles taken from working drawings ; while 
■Jacoby's '"Plain Lettering" may be recommended to those wishing 
to arrange their titles in a scientific and accurate manner with 
letters correctly spaced and proportioned. For ordinary purposes, 
however, the average draftsman is well able to space letters by 
eye ouly, and make quite a satisfactory general arrangement for a 
title. 



CHAPTER IV. OUTLINE SHADING. 



IX everyday practice this kind of shading is unfortunately not 
employed very often, and upon some kinds of working draw- 
ings its use would perhaps be a distinct disadvantage, as the heavier 
outlines would generally tend either to increase or decrease the 
actual dimensions of an object drawri, which in that case could not 
be correctly scaled off, or might tend to confuse small sections. 
With sufficient dimensioning, however, a system of shade fines 
could very well be employed, which would give many drawings of 



that sort of finished appearance, in which respect they are sadly 
lacking in most cases. It would furthermore assist the eye in 
reading and interpreting the shape and proportions of parts at a 
glance. Many offices prohibit outline shading. In such cases all 
full outlines should be made heavier than others. 

Outline shading should universally be employed on all assembled 
drawings and on such sheets where it will not interfere with scaling 
off of dimensions or with black sections Manv draftsmen who 



15 



are in the habit of using shade lines do not make them conspicuous 
or decided enough. Shade lines should, as a rule, be made about 
three or four times the strength of the ordinary outline. 

The generally accepted rule in regard to shading is to have the 
light fall from the upper left hand corner at an angle of 45 degrees. 
The shaded side, therefore, would be the diagonally opposite one, 
or in a square or oblong figure the side denoting its base, parallel 
■with the lower edge of the drawing and its right hand side. A 




Fig 21. 

square opening within any of those figures therefore will have to be 
shaded the reversed way, or at the top and left hand side. Assum- 
ing the square to be set on one angle, as shown in Fig. 21A, only 
the under side, which is located at right angles to the assumed rays 
of light, would have to be shaded, while the opening within would 
have its opposite side so treated. At the same time, as the reader 
will perceive, something seems to be amiss with that shading. Let 
us therefore deviate just a trifle from the oi'thodox rule and apply 
the remedy : Add one-half or one-third the regular width of a shade 
line to the lower left hand outline of the square and the upper right 
hand side of the opening and the drawing ("B,") as well as the one 
showing the square tilted slightly towards the left ("C ") and treated 
in a reversed manner, appears finished correctly. 




The shading of circles is generally effected by " shifting centers " 

or moving the points of the compasses a trifle from the center of 

such figure, the distance being equal to the thickness of the desired 

shade line, and inking in the shading 

always in a direction from left to 

right. If the new center is correctly 

located -the shade line merges per- 
fectly at both ends. Another method, 

as practised by the writer, is to retain 

the center, shade the arc of a sector 

of 135° as at "A" and "B" of Fig. 22, 

the ends of such fully shaded arc 

tapering and merging into the light 

portions as Tapers A', A", B' and B" 

on the same figure indicate. The 

improvement gained by following the latter method is 

clear by comparing "A" and "B" of Fig. 23. 

Since the shade lines represent a conventionalized substitute for 

actual shadows cast, they should nearly always be placed at the out- 
side of the outlines of an object ; 
there are cases, though, where by 
strictly adhering to this rule the 
symmetry of an object would suf- 
fer, or where, again, it would ap- 
pear as if notches were cut into 
a straight outline. In such cases 
it becomes necessary, of course, to 
place such shade lines against the 
Such exceptional instances are illus- 
24 and 25. 



made fairly 




inner edge 
trated and 



Fig. 23. 

of the outline. 



contrasted in Figs 



A striking instance, 



16 



which illustrates the advantage of shading the outside of objects is 
shown under Fig. 26. 

Very often a case may occur, that rivets, bolts, etc., are to be 
shown in elevation, where the surrounding parts are cut away or 




r 



A. 
(Correct.) 



B. 
(Incorrect.) 



Lu 



i 




Fig. 24. 



(Correct.) 

Fig 25. 



( Incorrect) 



represented as being in section. Formerly all such objects were 
uniformly section- lined and consequently not shaded, but that prac- 
tice has now become obsolete. 

Of course the adjacent parts of such a section, as for instance 
the three thicknesses of plate shown in Fig. 27, are cut on the same 

plane, and therefore cannot receive any 
shading between them. The plan " A" 
on this figure explains why the rivet 
shown in "B" must be shaded as it is, 
i. c, the heads overhanging and casting 
a shadow, and the stem also projecting 
half way, thus receiving a shade line. 
The very common mistake committed 
by draftsmen is to shade them only 
partially as is shown under "C" in the same figure. 

Ordinarily the strength of full shade lines should be made uni 
form. Imagine for an exception, however, a simple side elevation 




Incorrect. 



S/*M 



Correct. 



Fig. 26. 



of a plate girder. If the full strength shading were given to the over- 
hanging top cover plate of the upper flange it would entirely fill up 
the thickness of the horizontal flange of the top angle. In such a 
case a reduction in strength of that shade Hue to about one-third 
regular width is advised. The lower 
edge of the flange of the angle men- 
tioned, outlined against a compara- 
tively wider space, may receive the 
full strength of shading. Another 
instance, if such may be quoted, is 
the shading of the ropes in a draw- 
ing of a derrick, perhaps, which 
shaded full strength would appear 
too clumsy. Such distinctions are 
best to be left, however, to the indi- 
vidual taste of the draftsman. In 
Fig. 28 straight, tapering shade lines 
are employed ; here are indicated in 
a graphic manner the slanting sur- 
faces of the ribs of a manhole-cover 
frame. Under certain conditions the 

actual shadow thrown by this object Incorrect. 

would correspond with our outline C. 

shading shown here. The tapered F 'g- 27 

shading of curved outlines, as shown by Fig. 29, is governed by 
principles similar to those given for circles and circular openings. 
The eye, when properly trained, will be able to determine the point 
of merging from the tapering shade to the light outline. 

The shading of a straight line is generally effected by placing the 
edge of the rule a trifle below it, the pen is opened slightly wider, and 





17 



a line ruled parallel to the one to be shaded ; the pen is then inclined 

somewhat towards the 
draftsman, and in this 
position will usually fill 
the space between the 
two lines by one applica- 
tion. If it is found some- 
times that the pen fills the 
space to be inked by a 
narrow margin, a slight 
turning of the inclined 
pen towards the right be- 
tween the thumb and the 
index finger will widen the 
resulting ink line and 
make it fully adhere to 
the two lines, thereby fill 
ing the space. Where a 
horizontal shade line is to 
be joined by another 
shade line at any given 
angle, run the first line a 
trifle beyond the joint, as 
shown at right side of 
Fig. 30. The vertical 
shade line may then be 
joined to the extreme end 
of the horizontal one, 
and obviously a clean 




result. For shade lines of medium strength the pen is set a ti'ifie 
wider, and the shade line ruled so close to the outline as to make it 
adhere there. The corners in such a case need special attention. 
In shading the straight tapering lines shown in Fig. 28, the edge of 
the rule is set parallel to the outer edge of the intended shade line 
and the heavier end is 
generally commenced 
with. For circle shad- 
ing, the full shade line 
(see Fig. 31) is first 
filled in with the pen 
of the compasses in the 
same order as given 
for the straight line 
shading (i. e., draw a 
parallel line below, in 
this case a concentric 
arc, the space between 
to b e filled in by a 
second or third application.) 



1!?o 




Plan. 



Section A-B. 



Vertical Section. 

sharp corner in the shadim 



difficult to obtain otherwise, will 



Fig. 29 
The tapering ends, as indicated by 
dotted lines in the figure, are then put in freehand, by beginning in 
either case from the ends of full lines and working the ink care- 
fully, while yet moist, towards the merging 
points. This, after a little preliminary prac- 
tice, can very neatly be done by the average 
ordinary No. 303 Gillott's pen. A better 
method, although one requiring more practice, a deft hand and 
thorough knowledge of the instrument, is illustrated diagrammati- 
cally in Fig. 32. Here the shading, as indicated by dotted lines, is 
effected by gradually springing the compasses or preferably bow 



Fig. 
draftsman 



30. 
with 



the 



18 




pen, from merging point to merging point ; a slowly increasing 
pressure at first, maximum pressure for full portion and gradually 

decreasing pressure either from or to- 
wards the center, as the case may be, will 
produce in perhaps two applications the 
strength desired. The relative intensity 
o£ the required pressure is indicated on 
our diagram by differing lengths of ar- 
rows. As mentioned, a certain amount of 
practice is necessary before this method 
can safely be employed upon an actual 
drawing. The shading of portions of cir- 
F'S- 31. c l es i s to be effected also by springing the 

compasses until the heaviest part becomes equal in width and 
merges into the adjoining 
shaded or light lines (such 
as "A" or "G" in Fig. 33). 

After a drawing has been 
finished up to this stage 
(outline shading and letter- 
ing completed), the proper 
'"' ' section lining and, if desired, 

the graded line shading, indicating convex or 
concave surfaces, or, on a map, mountain shading and water lines, 





Fig. 33 



may be added. That style of finishing should, however, never be 
allowed to run across any lettering which has previously been placed 
upon such surfaces, but should be broken off, leaving minute open 
spaces around the letters, as shown in Fig. 34. In this manner the 






F. R. 251 



\ " 7 " Not 4 I5tt' ' Sfytemberpl - 




"■37/ W.C.Bundock 80ac. 
4 

Fig. 34. 

descriptive matter is not interfered with in any way. The trifling 
additional labor which the taking of this precaution entails, is well 
repaid by the clear and tidy appearance of the respective parts 
afterwards. 



19 




CHAPTER V. SECTION LINING. 



SECTION lines should always be employed where it is desired to 
U represent any object as cut by a plane and where the parts 
intervening between the observer and the plane of section are 
removed. An omission of the proper sectioning or "hatching" 
will result in an unsatisfactory drawing, and will sometimes make it 
entirely incomprehensible, as the reader of such drawing in trying 
to interpret it has mentally to supply the missing tints, a very try- 
ing and at times irritating task. Some draftsmen again, on the 
other hand, are in the habit of tinting or hatching all materials 
represented in the drawing, making no distinction between surfaces 
in section and such as are in elevation, a proceeding which, entail- 
ing as it does, a considerable amount of unnecessary work, will 
make matters even worse, as far as the legibility of a drawing is 
concerned. It is of course well to make some concessions in this 
matter, as for instance, a few courses of brick or stone may be 
suggested on an elevation of a wall, so as to give relative size of 
adjoining objects, or to show the kind of bond used, etc. This 
point will, however, be treated more in detail further on. 

The color tinting of sections employed in some establishments 
instead of the pure black section lining allows, when consistently 



placed, of a very good mental picture of the part so treated, and 
the tints will readily suggest themselves : neutral tint for cast iron, 
blue for wrought iron or steel, yellow for brass, brown for earth, 
Indian red for brick, etc. When used on a tracing, however, the 
different colors cease to be distinct on a blue print made there- 
from, with the sole exception perhaps that the actinic value of 
some of the colors may render those more prominent than the rest. 
For photo-repixxluctive purposes in black and white a tinted draw- 
ing is also useless, as some of the washes would reproduce as a 
muddy gray or black, others be entirely lost. Therefore it is the 
writer's opinion that all drawings for photographic reproduction 
should be finished up in pure black. 

In drawing and finishing a section of any object the draftsman 
very properly should assume the "near" portion cut off by the 
plane of section as being actually detached; the "far" portion 
thus remaining should be treated solely and faithfully under this 
assumption, hatchiug all such parts as are cut by the plane men- 
tioned, and leaving the unaffected ones severely alone. These few 
points cannot be emphasized too strongly, as very many draftsmen 
are sadly deficient in consistently following out such conditions 



20 



s3iei7'/r' 




assumed. An almost pathetic instance of erring in that respect is 
presented in our 
Fig. 35 " A," and 
the proper treat- 
ment of the parts 
involved is de- 
monstrated in 
" B " alongside. 

Before intro- 
ducing the stand- 
ards of section 
lining defined be- 
low, it may he 
stated, that in 
cases where no 

mistakes regarding different materials employed are possible, or 
where names of materials are lettered on respective surfaces, there 
cannot exist any reasonable objection to the use of a simple diagonal 
hatching across all portions which appear in section. In fact, this 
method sometimes possesses advantages of its own. 

The standards of section lining presented in the following have 
been employed and in parts evolved by the writer while in the 
drafting department of "Engineering News;" the metal sections 
given are almost identical with the ones used by the Bureau of 
Steam Engineering of the U. S. Navy Department. For the 
materials most often recurring the simplest method of section 
lining has been chosen ; the relative density and probable texture 
of the materials has also been taken into account. If, while using 
the standard metal sections given here, the draftsman should 
happen to be in need of an additional one, as, for instance, phos- 



phor-bronze, he may, by adding an appropriate set of lines (per- 



4-z Coping 



Channel. 



4^'Copinq 



,3xlZ°x7'//' 



?%>I0" 
Channel 



haps vertical) to 
the symbol given 
for bronze, evolve 
thereby anew dis- 
tinction and still 
indicate its rela- 
tionship, o r h e 
might prefer to 
use the symbol 
given here and 
letter on the 
modified name. 
In Fig. 36 the 
chilled contact 

faces of Car Wheel Iron are indicated by double and triple hatching, 

so as to show relative 




density of those materials. 
Similar instances might 
be quoted, where a like 
expedient can be adopted 
For all ordinary purposes, 
however, the w rite r 
deems the tables given 
complete in every re- 
spect. 

The section lining on 
metal surfaces shown in 
conjunction with masonry 
sections should be made about twice as close as the latter, giving those 



2L 



a somewhat darker tint and rendering them distinctly " metallic.'' 
In drawing for ordinary building or bridge construction, the 
accepted practice is to show all metal sections in black as in Fig. 
37. The lines between the different thicknesses of sections are 
here indicated by faint white spaces, which should, where such 




Fig. 37. 



IPI,£0xf 
SRIIfl5J&£' 



thicknesses continue purely in elevation, be likewise continuations 
of the black dividing lines, somewhat tedious to construct, since a 
white space between such thicknesses represents two separate out- 
lines. In drawings also where a simple principle of construction, 
such as shown in Fig. 38, (oil-filter) is to be illustrated, thin metal 
sections are very appropriately shown in solid black. In all such 
cases, however, care must be taken never to let the shaded outlines 
interfere in such a way that they might be mistaken for black sec- 
tions. For this pm*pose shade lines of one-half the regular strength 
may be employed, which may even be thinned down where they 
occur in proximity to the black sections; or other expedients may 
be adopted in such a case ; that is, the sections may either be 
slightly increased in width, or shading be left off altogether. 

The distinctive metal sections, shown on plate I., and the differ- 
ent masonry sections on plate II., may be executed mechanically 
— with section liner and ruling pen. From past experience the 
writer has, however, lost faith in all mechanical devices for doing 



this class of work — none work satisfactorily, and they cannot sup- 
plant the steady hand and alert eye of the trained draftsman. A 
unique little home-made affair, described by L. F. Rondinella in 
his paper " Rapid Methods in Instrumental Drawing," is certainly 
cheap. In the following the 
description is given in his 
own words, and the illustra- 
tion, Fig. 39, attached : 

"A very good device, and 
one that has long been used 
in some drafting rooms, can 
be made out of a soft-wood 
straight-edge, about one- 
eighth inch thick (e. g., a 
penny ruler) and two pins, 
to be used with a triangle 
and against a T-square 
blade. One side of the tri- 
angle is placed against the 
upper edge of the soft wood 
on the paper, so that an ad- 
jacent side forms the angle 
desired for the hatchings, 
and the pins are driven into Fig- 38. 

the edge so that the corners of the triangle can strike against them, 
the distance between the pins being equal to the side of the triangle 
plus the desired distance between the hatchings. To use this de- 
vice, the lower edge of the soft wood is placed against the upper 
edge of the T-square blade, as shown in the figure. With the 
triangle against the left-hand pin, a line is drawn along its right 




22 



hand edge ; the triangle is still held firm, and the straight edge is 
slid to the left until stopped by the right-hand pin ; the straight- 
edge is then held firm, and the triangle slid up to the left-hand pin ; 
a second line is then drawn, and this process is repeated until the 
section surface is covered with equidistant lines. After a little 
practice, work can be done very rapidly with this device, and the 
eyes are not strained to judge the distance between the lines." 

Another simple section-liner, devised by A. S. Burgess and shown 
under Fig. .40, seems to be an improvement on the above. By 
changing the triangle in the three slots, we can get a combination 

giving twelve different 
widths of spacing, enough 
almost to cover every case 




Soft Wood Straight Edge 



T-square Blade 



Fig. 39 



in practice. Section lining 
by eye requires practice and 
a steady hand ; avoid at the 
beginning of the work too 
i close a spacing, an error 
> which very many draftsmen 
commit ; start with the or- 
dinary outline strength in a 
45° diagonal direction with moderately large spacing ; after every 
10 or 12 lines filled in glance back over the completed area, so as 
to gradually correct any deviation towards narrowing or widening 
spaces. If you notice that a line just ruled is spaced too far from 
the last one, rectify by purposely ruling the next line too near, and 
vice versa, assuming immediately afterwards, however, the normal 
width of spacing. In this manner an even " coloring " of the sec- 
tion-lined surface can be maintained. This is made clear by referr- 
ing to Fig. 41, showing an evenly hatched surface, where neverthe- 



Cufoutaboufg 
and vary length, 
by a bout j£ 



less "a" and i: c" indicate too riarrow and too wide spaces respect- 
ively, which are rectified by subsequent spaces, "b" and " d," as 

related above. For 
very rapid work, the 
writer employs the 
cufoffabouf medium sized 45° tri- 
angle, using its hypo- 
thenuse as working 
edge ; the 90° point is 
raised and the left 
thumb placed under 
same, while the four 
fingers of 




~-j?"of Corner 



Abovfri longer ihanfhefonqesf 
side of Celluloid Trctnqle. 

Fig 40. 



that hand slightly ex- 
tended, serve moder- 
ately to press the rul- 
ing edge down ; the triangle, sliding only on the lower edge of its 
hypothenuse, responds to the slightest motion. The parallel posi- 
tion of the lines, of course, becomes more or less problematical ; 
for the writer believes, while fully realizing the consequences o£ 
being considered a confirmed heretic, a > d 

that truly parallel lines are not es- 
sential in section-lining as long as an 
even tone of the hatched surface is ob- 
tained by the means outlined above. 
With small or narrow areas of sec- 
tions the author takes the liberty of 
doing them freehand altogether, and 
there is no reason why a draftsmaii possessed with a steady hand can- 
not neatly cross-hatch a narrow strip with an ordinary pen. For do- 





23 




.■Attachment for Operating 
; Rod of Feed Hopper. 




Feed Aperture 



Belt Pulley 

for 
Automatic 
Feed. 



L,6'xi"x 



■'.f 3 .-.'. '»'< I ENG.NEWS. 

Fig. 42. 



ing this class of work on transparent material the detached sheet of 
"Reinhardt's Lettering" placed under that part of the drawing may be 
found quite useful in giving spacing and direction of lines, etc. Ad- 
jacent areas should receive 
section lines in opposite di- 
rection; where, however, the 
section-lining of three or 
more areas adjoins, 30° ruling 
may in addition be resorted 
to, as shown by Fig. 42. It 
is, of course, plain, that the 
same pieces of metal must 
here be section-lined in the 
same direction (as on both 
sides of vertical shaft "A") so 
as to establish their identity. 
In regard to section-lining 
brick or stone, as on plate 
II., the writer would promulgate another pet heresy : these materials 
never show up so well as when a narrow strip against the lighted 

sides of the respective areas is left open, 
thereby enhancing the effects of light and 
shade ; the time expended in ruling in the 
necessary pencil lines defining such spaces 
is well paid for by the improved appear- 
ance of the sections afterwards. The 
£' ' section-lining for stone, as the denser 

material should, as shown, be ruled with pen set for about one half 
the strength of a shade line. Still further distinction in this respect 
may sometimes be indulged in, as our Fig. 43 shows. Here the 





24 









o 









■mm^^->^o 



light effects on the edges of the separate stones are perhaps uncalled 
for ; they might have been produced at the top and left hand side 
only, the masonry being thus 
treated as a whole. In the ease of 
coursed masonry the separate 
courses are generally not indicated) 
although in some instances it may 
be desirable to do so. In " broken 
stone"' and '"concrete" (plate II.) 
the separate stones should be 
shown angular in shape. Have 
the rip-rap stones neatly overlap- 
ping. 



3d. 



Ed. 



^ 



S>7-0 



1st. 

Gravel. 



Broken Stone. 

Fig. 45. 

Broken stone can be shown by placing each stone separately. 
"When it is desired to show same tightly packed, as for ballast in a 
roadbed, another method, as shown in Fig. 44, may be employed : 

-ELII6.0 



and then put in cross-strokes at different angles. The stones and 
gravel in "concrete" should always be shown shaded : the outlines 
can neatly and quickly be constructed with a single continuous 
stroke and varying pressure of the pen. as shown in Fig. 43. Throw 
in the stones at random ; then fill in sparingly between these with 
the heavy, irregularly shaped dots, occasionally putting in a smaller 
stone where needed. Finally even up the tint of the whole by plac- 
ing the small dots, indicating particles of cement, which will, when 
judiciously placed, supply the necessary finish to the section, and 
make it resemble the real material pretty closely. In " gravel con- 
crete" the gravel should of course receive rounded outlines, and can 
be quickly constructed, as shown. For the placing of the heavy 
black dots in '"cinder concrete" a heavy lettering pen maybe used : 
each dot to be produced by a single application. 

In all these and the following freehand sections the tint should 

be carried closely 
against the " hght " 
outiines.unless some 
other dark tinted 
section is joined at 




Section through Inflow Pipe. 
46. 



r : 



Draw sinuous courses, sometimes parallel, sometimes converging, 
the distance generally being equal to the desired size of the stones, 



those sides, when narrow open spaces should be left, analagous to 
rules to be observed in making masonry sections. (Observe ""loam" 



25 



■fflli 



and "crushed stone" sec- 



Ac. 16 Expanded 
Metal-. 



' ::: '"m/- ■'■■' W&'>'°'K—~ 



4- 



Ti'e, 6x8"x8'0" ■ 



■f?>. 



) ' ■ Wji ,'ji i".\ ,'iWp /p ''!\i) 

1 ,.-r.i" _~""ft"y,~";"~"rr : .r~~ r v 



>/ 0/(7/77, 



/■'2 Mortar 



j' ffods,8'6"long i 3"C.toC. 

f(7(J7 Alternate Rod turned 
up at Ends. 

Part Transverse Section A-B. 



and " puddle " sections against 

tions, etc., Fig. 45). 

The increasing use of reinforced concrete in modern constructive 

work has necessitated a modification of the standard employed for 

showing ordinary 
concrete. In such 
sections the rein- 
forcing system or 
skeleton of rods and 
wires should be 
S, shown by f a i r 1 y 
<£°Wfm heavy, short, double 
or single dashes, 
where in side eleva- 
tion, and by solid 
black sections, giv- 
ing circular or 
square shape of 
such wires or rods, 
where this reinforce- 
ment appears in 
cross-section. The 
reinforcement is 

thus allowed to 
Port Longitudinal Section C-D. stand out bold and 

F'S- 47 - clear ; the concrete 

itself is represented in light, broken, diagonal lines, as our Fig. 47 
shows. The advantage of using this modified standard for concrete 
section is demonstrated by comparing A and B, Fig. 48. 

" Gravel " is, wherever occurring in the following sections, never 




shaded, so as to avoid any of its compounds, such as " sand and 
gravel," being mistaken for concrete. The symbol for " sand " can 




A- b. 

Fig. 48. 

with a little practice be evenly placed by connecting groups of 
dotted circular arcs, as shown in Fig. 49. 

Water in repose (Plate III.) may be represented in two ways, as 

the exigencies of the case may demand : by graded .._ 

solid lines, decreasing in strength as their spacing 
increases, or by evenly spaced, uniformly broken W$$$.' : '& : "' : ' : 
lines. The latter method is employed for showing /§?$•. .!*..„ ..•;.•&•*••> 
" oil " in Fig. 38, and it answers very well for con- '''''''•£${;&%;;' 
trasting the two liquids shown in that illustration. 
Earth is indicated by series of short parallel 
strokes, about 4 or 6 in a bunch, constantly changing in 
Where only a narrow strip of an earth section, such as under a 

foundation, is to be indicated, 
a neat way of toning it down 
in color is suggested in Fig. 
50, which shows the three 
stages of drawing the sec- 



Fig. 49. 
direction. 




3d. 



1st. 



2d. 
Fig. 50. 

tion. As will be noticed, the strokes in the first stage are made tap- 
ering downwards and placed closest. " Earth filling " (Plate III.) 



26 




can be shown by disconnected parallel-lined bunches interspersed 
with dots, showing a generally broken-up texture. In drawing the 
symbol for "bed rock" it will first be necessary to throw 
in the heavier dividing lines, indicating seams, before 
the actual filling-in can be commenced. Make those 
tapering, as shown in 
Fig. 51, and irregular 
in direction and length; 
some extending and 
breaking up at a little 
distance out. Where 
quite a deep section of 
rock is required lateral seams may be put in additionally, as shown. 
In filling between seams by sets of parallel lines, their direction 
should change as abruptly as possible between the different sets. 

In showing stratified 

Keys --. ^ 5fee/ : We dge . ° 

rock, horizontal seams, 
or nearly so, should be 
predominant, except in 
a case where a dip of 
the strata occurs, when 
naturally the seams 
must be drawn so as to 
represent that inclina- 
tion. If any filling-in 
at all is desired here, it 
may be done sparingly 
against the edge. 
The "undefined" symbol might indicate either bed rock, earth or 
sand ; it is with advantage employed where the actual material is 




Transverse Section. 

Fig. 52. 



not definitely known, and is executed, as shown on plate III., by 
wavy, freehand lines. 

In showing "puddle" section on same plate the horizontal strokes 
may be done either freehand or by rule ; they should however, break 
joint neatly ; the same may be said of the symbol for " silt," where 
the shorter dashes should be pretty closely placed. " Cement," as 
distinguished from " sand," is shown with large and small dots. 
Where drawing some of the geological symbols contained on 
Plate IV., throw in for instance " boulders " at first at random, 
" cobbles " or " gravel " afterwards as fillers. 

Cross-sections of wood shown on same plate, to be done free- 
hand of course, should always represent circular arcs; where 
complete " rings " are drawn, have them as nearly circular as 
possible ; increase spacing from the core outwards in slightly 
wavy lines. The drying cracks or " checks," which are one of the 
principal characteristics of the transverse wood section, should be 
made nearly radial ; a little critical study of the sawed-off end of 
a square timber will be helpful. Fig. 52 appended herewith, shows 
a cross-section of a timber electric conduit, and is a pretty fair 
specimen in showing the grain of the different portions. 

Longitudinal sections of wood are generally drawn by wavy lines 
fairly evenly spaced. If more 
refinement is desired, the study 
of the texture of a planed pine 
board may be advisable. As 
shown by Fig. 53-, a judicious g ' 

placing of a few solid blacks by back and forward strokes of the 
pen, parallel with the axis of the timber, will produce the desired 
effect. The writer deems it unnecessary to adopt different kinds 
of graining for sections of various specimens of timber ; distinctions 




27 



in that direction may be attained by lettering on the relative names. 

Additional specimens of geological symbols are given on plate V. 
in " sections of well borings." Note bow increase in density, signify- 
ing increasing hardness of the " red sandstone" in the first boring, 
may be represented in such a case. 

The portion of " covered filter bed section " on plate V. shows suc- 
cessive layers of filter- 
ing materials; different 
sizes of filter gravel 
may be designated as 
shown ; observe how 
the light strip at the 
base of the two upper 
layers of that material 
enhances clearness. 
The symbol for "sand" 
is only filled in down- 
wards some distance 
from the edge for 
reasons of saving time; 
the effect produced 
thereby is better than a 
carefully worked-over 
whole surface could give 




Transverse Section L-L. 



Fig. 54, 



On the " manhole-section" introduced 
on the same plate every material shows so distinctively that the 
descriptive matter was totally dispensed with on that drawing. The 
sections of the vitrified pipe were here, for exceptional reasons, left 
entirely white. 

As the drawings of more recent electrical constructions are as arule 
inconsistently treated and therefore hard to understand, the writer 



thought it expedient to insert under Fig. 54 two sections of an elec- 
tric motor. In ordinary drafting, as well known, no distinction would 
be made between parts of laminations "A" in section or in elevation. 
In our drawing this point is strictly maintained. The exact thickness 
or the number of those plates is of course not given, and, if neces- 
sary, such information may be lettered alongside. Insulations are 

shown black (where in 



section), although the 
ordinary electrical 
draftsman generally 
puts in all insulating 
material in that color, 
whether shown in sec- 
tion or elevation. 

The drawing from 
which our illustration 
was copied, indicated 
the actual courses of 
the wires, presumably, 
in the circumferential 
coils "F" in "Longi- 
tudinal Section " by 
horizontal and vertical 
lines, and in " Transverse Section L-L " the coil "F" showed concen- 
tric rings corresponding with the horizontal joints. This arrange- 
ment, though perhaps unnecessary, was faithfully copied, so as to 
make a concession to existing notions upon the subject. In order, 
however, to show those parts clearly as section, a diagonal set of 
lines was added, which, although at variance Avith existing prac- 
tice, was the only consistent way to treat the portions involved. 



t tvl 

Longitudinal Section. 



28 





CHAPTER VI. CURVED SURFACE SHADING. 




THE portions of a drawing which represent curved surfaces may- 
be executed either by graduated tinting (wash) with water 
colors or by line shading. The latter 
process, which will be described in de- 
tail below, requires, if properly carried 
out, considerable practice and skill. 
The style of cylinder shading generally 
taught and used by some draftsmen, is 
shown by Fig. 55A, and looks exceed- 
ingly neat, where no outline shading is 
supposed to have been employed. 
Where such, however, has been used, 
and curved surface shading is to be added for the sake of clearness, 

these surfaces must logically be 

represented . as at " B," showing 

the darkest shading near the edge. 

The theoretical method of curve 

shading is made so clear by Fig. 

£ 56, that no further explanation will 

be necessary. An unusually poor example of such work from a 

plate of the Mississippi River Commission's report is shown under 




Fig. 55. 




our Fig. 57, demonstrating to a certainty that the draftsman did 
not follow such rule, and further- 
more, did not possess the redeem- 
ing trait of being able to space 
his lines by eye. 

Definite rules for the construc- 
tion of graded curve shading, fair 
examples of which are given under 
Fig. 58, and on plate V. (Man- 
hole-Section), would be difficult to 
formulate and could not always 
be applied successfully ; therefore 
the writer will content himself 
with giving a few concise hints 
relative to the subject matter for 
the guidance of the draftsman. 

Begin ruling the light side of a 
cylinder from the edge towards 
the center with lines of uniform 
strength ; place the first line as 
close as possible to the outline proper ; increase spacing of the lines 





Cross Sect/on. 



Fig 58. 



gradually at about the rate of 3 to 5 ; keep on increasing spaces 

until near center, then stop. When ink on lines just ruled has 

dried, begin at the oppo- 
site or dark side ; rule a 

line about three - fifths 

the strength of the 

shaded outline, as near 

as possible, leaving just 

a trace of a white space 

between the two. The 

next line ruled should 

again be about three-fifths the strength of the preceding one, with 

spacing as on the light side, a trifle 
wider between. Keep on in this man- 
ner until no more grading of lines is 
possible, the minimum or outline 
strength of line having been reached, 
when a similar increase of widths of 
Fig' 59 - space may be resumed. End near or 

at the center line, leaving an open space against the other side. 

Carefully watch the respective grading 

and spacing of the lines, also make sure 

that the open space which represents a 

high light on the curved surface, comes to 

one side of the center line of the object 

so treated, and after some practice this 

shading may be done quite effectively. 
The shading of cones, where frustated, 

must naturally always converge in the imaginary apex, which 

should be placed in pencil before beginning ; a preliminary which 




%,,<f 




many draftsmen deem superfluous, and the omission of which will 
always be noticeable. In shading the dark side with graded lines, 
care should be taken, for obvious reasons, to have those shade lines 
tapering toward the apex, as our Fig. «*&»*>» upperscm,. 
59 shows. It will help the clearness 
and also improve the general appear- 
ance of the drawing, if a white edge 
like that described for 
"masonry sections" in the 
preceding chapter, is left 
open against the light side 
of the ends of the curve 








Side Elevation. 



shading, 



Fig. 62. 

a treatment 
which all illustrations ac- 
companying the present 
chapter have received. 

Where a curved por- 
tion adjoins a straight 

part, as for instance Ptan ' 

shown in Fig. 60, the best Fi £- 6a 

way to proceed is to throw in the shading of the former with the 
compasses first, and then carefully join the straight lines afterwards. 
The proper manner of constructing the tajjered arcs is set forth by 




30 



cur Figs. 23 and 32, which accompany the chapter 
on outline shading. Fig. 61 illustrates the use of 
pencil guide hues to insure a perfect joint at the 

points of tangent. 
It sometimes may 
be desirable to in- 
crease the shade 
effect of pipe 
flanges, for in- 
stance, in which 
case freehand 
shade lines, as in 
Figs. 60 and 62, 
parallel to the 
flange in this case, 
may be judici- 
ously placed. 

As the drafts- 
man may some- 
times be pressed 
for time, and 
some curve shad- " 
ing should never- 
theless be em- 
ployed for the 
sake of clearness, 
the handy expe- 
dient of only 




k— - 14"- 

Upper Casting. 










f ^^Sf5teel Forging 
\j^Brvnze Ring 






II 


T r pi 


Illill 


v_ 


<r:: ; 


k- 9 > 




K~— J fc— 19' ->K- 



19' 



Lower Casting. 
Fig. 63. 

shading curved objects on the dark side may be 
resorted to, as shown in our illustrations, Fig. 63, 



SECTION A-B. 




HORIZONTAL SECTION. 

A. 




Vertical Section. 




Horizontal Section. 
B. 



Fig. 64. 



31 



and the drawing of the D'Auria Pump on plate VI. This leaves 
the eye to supply the missing shading, and answers well. The little 
flat freehand shading on the latter figure used sparingly helps in 
this particular case to give flat effects against the curved portions, 
where left blank. 

Piles may be shaded very neatly freehand with a 303 Gillott's 
pen in the manner shown on "Standard Pile and Trestle Bridge," 
plate VI. The strokes composing the shade lines should be made 
wavy, so as to represent a somewhat rough surface. Where de- 



sired, this shading may also be executed on one side only. While 
going to some extent into details for shading on curved surfaces, 
the writer would employ this kind of finish only where clearness 
demands it, or where it is essential that a highly finished draw- 
ing be produced. He would certainly deprecate the use of curve 
shading in connection with a drawing where the essentials of 
correct drafting are so flagrantly violated, as on Fig. 64 " A," and 
would only use it where absolutely necessary, as shown in the cor- 
rected drawing, Fig. 64 " B." 



CHAPTER VII. SHADING OF INCLINED SURFACES. 



INCLINED surfaces are, as a rule, represented by parallel, 
evenly spaced lines; the gi'eater the angle of inclination of 
any surface from the picture plane the closer the spacing of those 
lines should be. This kind of shading should again only appear 
on mechanical drawings for special purposes, or where clearness 
demands it. 

Inclined light surfaces should receive light line shading, while 
the dark inclined spaces should be ruled by lines of similar 
strength as the shaded outlines defining such area. This is suffi- 
ciently made clear by the illustration on plate VII., where in 
''Plan of Invert" the light stepped-off incline shading joins the 



dark curve shading and vice-versa. This shading has to be very 
carefully done where the incline becomes tangential to a curve, 
as shown for instance on " Hinge Support Casting " on same 
plate, and the relative spacing can here be determined by dividing ' 
the total inclined or curved surfaces into equal pai'ts, and then 
projecting those points from the elevation to the plan. The suc- 
cessful draftsman will of course sooner or later depart from the 
strict rule and depend solely upon his eye to determine the proper 
spacing. 

Where desired, this kind of spacing can be sparingly applied, 
as in the case of the curve shading ; that is to say, light surfaces 



32 



may be left blank altogether, as the plan of the "Funnel- Shaped 
Spillway " on plate VI. indicates. The plan of the " Reservoir 



, , , „ MM.3Diam.A 



\Disfrib. Manhole- 
TDiam i El.of Bottom- 



produced through gradually decreasing the pressure on the pen at 
each stroke, as in making mountain slopes (Fig. 65). 

The nature of materials with which such slope is lined may 
sometimes also be represented, as for instance " riprap," which can 
be shown by a symbol similar to the "crushed rock" section, 




Embankment" on plate VII. shows purely freehand lines eo' 
parallel to top and foot of slope, to denote a rough surface. 
Such slopes may in some instances also be indicated by tapering, 
wavy strokes, drawn at right angles or radial to the top, and 



Fig. 66. 



closely packed, as indicated on Fig. 66. This kind of work, how- 
ever, is closely allied to a subject which we take up next in order. 




33 



CHAPTER VIII. TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING. 



mHE mechanical draftsman may at times be called upon to 
J- execute maps more or less sketchy in appearance ; this kind 
of work cannot altogether be styled mechanical drafting. In the 
following the writer will endeavor to limit himself almost exclu- 
sively to the subject of "sketch maps;" once proficiency in such 

work is acquired however, by the 
average draftsman, lie will be able 
to produce nearly or quite as good 
work as a regular topographical 
draftsman can accomplish. 

Freehand outlines should always 
be drawn with a medium strength 



pen ; a well-worn Gillott's No. 303 
will answer nicely. Outline shading 
of any map is essential ; shade rivers, 
roadways, streets, lakes, etc., strictly as depressions, while city 
blocks, bridges, buildings, outlines of land against water and simi- 
lar objects should be treated as projections. The freehand shading 
of coastlines, or of roadways must be done punctiliously; half or 
quarter strength shade lines should be used at the proper angle, as 




has been set forth by Figs. 29 and 33, and is indicated here by Fig. 
67. 

The features which are shown upon any map may be classed in 




Salt Water 
Marsh. 



Fig. 68. 

three groups, and where coloring is to be employed may be indi- 
cated by suitable tints, as 

1. Water; (blue) represented by seas, lakes, ponds, streams, 
canals, swamps, etc. 

2. Relief; (brown) mountains, valleys, cliffs, etc. 

3. Culture (black) represents works of man, such as railroads, 
roads, cities, boundaries, etc. All the lettering of a map should 



34 



also be done in black. The built-up portions of cities can be shown 
in solid black, as also the single houses represented. 

Another group may here be mentioned. The vegetation, as woods, 

meadows, orchards, 
etc., may be indicated 
by easily understood 
conventions and tint- 
ed light green. Where 
coloring is not desired 
these different fea- 
tures may, of course, 
be shown in black, 
and are also represent- 
edhere in that manner 
under Figs. 6$, C9, 70 
F 'g- 69 - and 71. 

After the necessary outlines of a map have been inked in and the 




Sand Bar. 

Mud Bar. 



Flat Rock. 



~-W' 






H limn nun u i mu t a 

Single Track. 
HIIIUIU II I II III I MI I III 

Double Track. 

Railways. 

Macad. Road. 
Secondary Road 

■;z;-_---j:z-t~ ------------ * 

Private or Farm 

Road. " 

"'Trail'" 



Street Railway. 

^f_ .,£' 

Ele voted Railway. 



Tunnel. 

UlllllllllllUlllllllllllillllUllllllllllUI 
itiiluuiiuiiminiiiHiiimiiTiiumimt 

Levee. 

Cut. 
<iHiiiIiiIintntn7m^ 



Bridge. 

im m ■■ ■ vbbb 
State Boundary. 

■ mmm m ^mi ■ M ■■ 

County n 
Township » 




Dam. 



Hedge. 

Stone Fence. 

— X X X X X- 

Wire » • 

1 H H + + 

Rail •> . 

Picket » . 

Property Line net Fenced. 

*£ X.B.H. 

Mine or Bench Mark 
Quarry. ^ 

B Triangulation 

Shaft. Station. 



Fig. 70. 

outline shading has judiciously been placed, the lettering is put on. 
The style of lettering to be used on sketch maps is described in the 



author's work on "Lettering/' and is deemed more in keeping with 
the general style of such maps than the orthodox roman and italic 
letters. The subsequent work consists in finishing up proper. 
"Watercourses, where indicated by a single fine, should be drawn 



Meadow. 



Cultivated 
Land. 



O o o o o o 
O O O O \> o 

•a o o o o o 
Orchard. 

io 9- O \> -"> j 

Deciduous 
Trees. 



****** + v *+ 
VVJnV 



yV, 
Willows. 



Cane Brake. Brush Wood. 









-;< * 
'ft"**** 

Evergreen 
Trees. 



fine WWW 
a™/ Brush. 



* -*T-7-* 
*- <: - -a -^ - 

Cedar and 
TamarackSwamp. 



Fig. 71. 
in a direction towards the source, so as to end there with as finely 
tapering a stroke as possible. Avoid the flat, meaningless style of 
line, as under " Incorrect " in Fig. 72, but endeavor to produce a 
wavy or " wabbling" effect, as shown alongside. Where, however, 
two opposite shore lines are vised to denote the width of a water- 
course, or where in general, w r ater adjoin- 
ing land portions is to be shown, thin 
lines running along the shore, similar to 
contour lines, may be used to indicate 
such water surfaces. Draw the first one 
as close as can possibly be done all around 
the land portions. Follow with the sub- 
sequent ones, finishing each contour com- 
pletely before touching the next one. Ob- 
serve increase in spacing, which should be 
about the same as advised for light side in chapter VI. " Curved 
Surface Shading." Take care to have such hues pass under a 




35 




bridge for instance, and around an island or pier, as exemplified by 
Fig. 73. Closely follow at first the shore line into every nook and 
corner; the next contours will, of course, gradually develop into 
more or less flat curves. The writer uses for the drawing of such 
'"water-lines" a Gillott's Lithographic or mapping pen. Good ex- 
amples of such water shading are given under "Map of Porto Rico" 

and "Location of "White Pass and 
Yukon Ry.," on plate VIII. About 6 to 
10 lines will be found amply sufficient 
to offset the land neatly. Such work, 
when properly executed, gives an excel- 
lent finish, pleasing to the eye and the 
lines suggest the form and relative spac- 
ing of actual waves coming shoreward. 
When it is desired to spend somewhat less time and still attain a 
suitable finish for the land portions, they may be offset against the 
water by adopting the shore-hatching. By this method uniformly 
short, evenly spaced lines, drawn in a direction as nearly as possible 
radial to the curves of the shore line, are used. 
Fig. 74 explains the principle involved very 
well. This treatment gives a most realistic 
effect on an indented, broken-up coast fine. In 
the map of the " North Sea Countries of 
Europe," plate VIII., this hatching has exclu- 
sively been used. 

A sandy flat coast can be offset by the method Fig. 74. 

shown in Figs. 75 and 76. In the former illustration the rows of 
dots are placed in a similar manner as the " water-lines," the spaces 
widening out inland. The sand dunes on Fig. 76 are also similarly 
treated. 




Contour lines on a map, (Figs. 69 and 77) must be indicated by 
very light lines. Every fifth or tenth contour should be accen- 
tuated by drawing 
same heavier. For 
this purpose a well 
worn Gillott's No. 
303 pen may be 
recommended; this 
will yield a fairly 
uniform line of me- 
dium strength, re- 
quiring no pressure 
when once the ink 
has well started 
flowing. 




75. 



Bridge ' 



The convention for " 
conditions, as for instance a 
small plan of a drawbridge 
with center pier, etc., may be 
substituted for the type shown 
in our illustration. The strokes 
indicating slope in " Cut " and 
"Fill," or "Levee" in the 
same figure, should be drawn 
in a "wabbling" or vibrant 
manner, and, beginning with 
heavy pressure, gradually de- 
crease in strength until they 
end in a hair-line (see Fig. 78). 
direction towards the body. 



in Fig. 70 may be modified to suit 




They should always be drawn in a 
A good draftsman with a trained eye 



36 



and steady hand, however, may construct the.se strokes in a re- 
versed way, beginning with hair-line strength and finish with the 

heavy stroke. 

In Fig. 79 is 
shown an in- 
stance where, 
for specific pur- 
poses, a good 
many distinc- 
tions for rail- 
ways had to be 
evolved ; this 
table or legend 
is taken from a 
railway map 
published in 
'" Engineering 
News." 

The conven- 
tions shown in 
Fig. 71 can be 
Fig. 77. supplemented 

considerably by adopting suggestive, easily understood symbols for 
different kinds of crops. The tnfts of grass in "meadow" should 
begin and end in short, light strokes of the pen ; the correct and in- 
correct ways are shown in Fig. 80 A. The dis- 
tinction between "orchard" and "wood" is so 
obvious that no further description is necessary. Fig 78. 

The method of easily and correctly forming deciduous trees is also 
indicated in Fig. 80, under " B." Make as near circular as possible, 




(brandTrunk Pacific Ry. or 
\ National Transcontinental Ry. 
■ - Trans- Canada Ry. 

— Canadian Pacific Ry. 

— Grand Trunk Ry. 
Intercolonial Ry. 
Canadian Northern Ry. 
Canada Atlantic Ry. 

(jr. Uorthem Ry. of Canada. 
Other Railways. 



a very important point. "Evergreen" trees are shown by five- 
pointed asterisks, of which the first three strokes, as in " C " of the 
same figure, are each placed by one application of a pliable pen at 
or nearly the correct angle, so as to leave room for strokes 4 and 5. 
The conventions for '"willows"' 
are to be done in a similar 
manner as the arrows for di- 
mension lines. In '"Brush 
Wood " small trees are drawn 
and tufts of grass placed at 
intervals. The symbol for 
"Cultivated Land" may also 
be used for fallow or freshly 
plowed land, and on a color map yellow 
green. 

The mountain work on a map can be executed by a fair drafts- 
man in quite a satisfactory manner after some practice and a little 
attention to the following directions. The con- 
tour lines should first be approximately pen- 
ciled in from the available notes ; the hatch- 
ing or short disconnected hues, by means of 
which the mountain shading is effected, 
shoidd always be drawn vertically to the con- 
tour and in a direction downward from the 
Have the strokes overlap slightly at times 



Fig. 79. 
ochre be used instead of 



.x«llllr. .«1»„„ 

Correct. 

iM"//^ .oV'fe, 

Incorrect. 
A. 



a 

B. 



, 



V\ , » -** j- >c 

c. 

Fig. 80. 
summit (see Fig. 81). 
rather than leave open spaces between the rows of hatched con- 
tours (see A and B, Fig. 81). Where contours are not parallel the 
hatching fines must be drawn radiating, so as to have their ex 
tremities normal to the contour at which they terminate. 

The degree of slope is indicated by varying the distance between, 



37 



as also the thickness of the hatching lines. Such lines accordingly 
are drawn heavier and closer spaced as the slope is steeper, and 

finer Avith wider spaces between for 
gentle slopes. Where a slope sud- 
denly becomes abrupt the tint must 
be deepened, or short lines at right 
angles to hatching must be interpo- 
lated (see " Cliffs" in Fig. 69). 

The hatching must therefore run 
parallel to the " line of greatest de- 
scent," or a line indicating the short- 
est course which water would take 
running down from the summit. 
This will account for the curving 
outward of those strokes in the pro- 
jecting slope in Fig. 82 "A." A 
draftsman Avho has acquired the prac- 




Section . 



Ill 



'lllll\\\W\ 



B. 



Fig. 81. 



tice of drawing the long, tapered, single strokes indicated in Fig. 



78 satisfactorily, can fairly well shade the slopes shown by 
"A," Fig. 82 with the single strokes, as outlined in " B," of the 
same figure. 

Fairly good examples of mountain work are contained on plate 
VIII. and on Fig. 
34. 

Take a not too 
fine, well-used 
pen to execute 
the hatching 
with. On the 
map of the 
"White Pass and 
Yukon Ry." the 
mountain work is treated somewhat sketchily through only finish- 
ing one side of a hill or mountain range for instance, as a means of 
saving time and to prevent an overcrowding of the map, the whole 
of the country represented being quite mountainous. 





Fig. 82. 



38 



CHAPTER IX. CHARACTER AND FINISH. 



THIS chapter .s principally devoted to supplement the subjects 
treated upon in the foregoing. Thus there may be cases, 
where it is desirable to add sparingly a few touches — features which 
in the preceding chapters have not altogether been enumerated. 

In the instance of the "Masonry Portal of Sewer,"' plate IX., the 
rock face of the stones can very appropriately be denoted by a few 
sketchy freehand strokes against the light side of the wall, or some 

courses of brick may be indicated in the 
side wall of the boiler setting of the 
" Playford Stoker" on the same plate, 
and still not interfere with the clearness 
of the drawing, the section-lined parts 
I 7 standing out clear against the back-ground. 

\ Metal or Stone j The few sketchy touches upon the piers 

L ' of the "Harlem River Drawbridge" (plate 

Fi& 83 XI.) have been put in for more than orna- 

mental purposes, and a close scrutiny of 
the drawing will reveal in a way the nature of the masonry em- 
ployed, and the different methods of foundation adopted for the 
piers. 




v>Full 




Where wood in elevation is to be distinctly treated, a few wavy 
strokes, as in "Sectional Elevation of Caisson," plate IX., and in 
" Standard Pile and Trestle Bridge," plate VI. , will in the former 
instance, where shown in "Half End Elevation," answer the pur- 
pose of contrasting the 
outer sheeting as 
"wood" against the 
metal plate of the cut- Half—J% 

ting edge. "When it is 

overdone to such an Shafting. Pipe, 

extent, however, as in 
the " Caisson for New 
East Kiver Bridge," 
plate IX., it will tend 
to obscure any distinc- incorrect, 

tion between the parts Fig. 85. 

in section and eleva 

tion, and only making matters worse, represents simply so much 
time wasted. Pure end elevations of timber should receive some 
treatment, and parts of " rings " may in such a case be placed in 



3 



39 



Round Rod. 



Square Rod. 



EO 



I Beam. 



a sketchy way. although the whole area to he shown as end eleva- 
tion should never he filled in completely, as the upper part of the 
illustration just mentioned on plate VI., will show. 

Such treatment, if judiciously applied, suggests at a glance a 

number of instructive 
details, and further- 
more enhances the ap- 
pearance of a drawing. 
In order still more to 
heighten such an effect 
the breaks, if breaking 
off of materials has to 
be resorted to, should 
also be made to suggest 
the nature of such 
materials, and even 
their shape. Thus 
wood should, as a rule 
be broken off, as Fig. 
83 shows, so as to con- 
trast with metal or 
stone. In Fig. 84 a 
few characteristic 
specimens, showing a 
formation of breaks, 
suggestive of the rela- 
tive shape of the objects, are represented. The consistent follow- 
ing out of the rule given above, seemingly results in the case of 
the "sewer'' on the same figure, almost in a perspective repre- 
sentation of that object, 



L 






Flat Bar. 


t 








c= 




_* 


Ry. TrackRail. 


) 








1 _ l_ 


, - 1 


Double Angle. 


1 - 11 




r 


Channel. 


I 



ZBar. 





too far. The collection given here can, where occasion offers, be en- 
larged upon by the individual drafts- 
man. 

Just a word or two in regard to 
the correct construction of such 
"breaks." First of all, it must not 
be forgotten, that a very decided 
distinction should be made between 
breaks of shafting and of pipe. 
Under Fig. 85 the correct style of 
the outline shading of such breaks 
is demonstrated, showing how half 
and full strength shade lines can be 
used, so as to properly indicate the 

shapes. The lower portion of the same figure illustrates how such 

breaks are occasionally 



4 Pin 
Side Elevation. 




1 i-iji 
Sectional Plan. 



Fig. 86. 



drawn and shaded up by the 
inexperienced; here the 
draftsman was not able 
to realize, that the greatest 
thickness of the pipe wall 
could consistently only be 
shown either at the top or 
at the bottom of the break, 
and that the same inevit- 
ably must decrease in 
width towards the middle 
at the sides. 

The elevation and sec- 




Rivets. 




: 



Screw 
Head. 



Bolt Nuts. 



Shaded 

Outlines 

only. 



Rope 
or Cable. 



Fig. 87. 



Whirl I 



perhaps, would be carrying the point tional plan of the panel point of a bridge span, in Fig. 86, shows 



40 



-1x4- x 12 



m 



without a word of descriptive matter to a trained eye the shape and 
" make-up" of the different members composing the structure. The 
duplicate breaks in the elevation might, of 
course, be dispensed with, where the number 
of bars or channels are given in the lettering 
descriptive of the " make-up." 

In the representation of a timber crib, on 
plate XL, the isometric view shows how ordi- 
nary outline shading may be applied to a per- 
spective drawing — somewhat at variance with 
the outline shading of pure plane projections. 
Here the ends of the timbers are for obvious 
reasons broken off in a very plain manner. 

Rivets for metal structures are, as a rule, left 
unshaded, except where drawn to a large scale. 
In the latter case, shading maybe applied after 



Bolt 



\fx4'xl8* 



\ I" Test Piece 



~~ 



<-| Hole 



L'Hole 



Slotted Hole 



■I*4"x20" 



F,g. 



one of the fashions shown on Fig. 87. The 
writer thought it unnecessary to employ any 
code for the vai*ious manners of riveting, as the 
different bridge and construction concerns have 
each formulated a standard of their own for 
such work. Shading of large scale bolt-nuts 
may with advantage be used, as shown on same 
illustration and in Fig. 88. On assembled 
drawings, the writer sometimes goes to the ex- 
treme of showing rivets or nuts in plan, as 
represented again in Fig. 87, outlining only 
the shaded portions. This method may be 



recommended where effect alone is desired. 

In regard to Fig. 89, which illustrates the rational shading of 



screw-threads, little, if anything, will be said, as the drawing is self- 
explanatory. The 




Ordinary 
'Style 



Dark 
?Side 
Accent- 
uated 




Shaded 
Full 



\Shading 
[Outlined 

{.Ordinary 
■ Outlines 



Conventional 
Symbol. 



^. ■ ' ~~*?77ft 



Triangular 
Thread. 




.Shaded 
full 



"full" shading of 
the triangular 



Square 
Thread. 



(Pencil Guide Lines are Indicated by 

Vertical Dotted Lines) 

Fig. 89. 



shaded threads against the shaded stem is shown 
of shading in the threads 
really conceals thei r 
correct shape in repre- 
senting them as straight 
surfaces, and a little free- 
hand shading, as shown 
above under " shaded 
full," is necessary to " • 

bring out the fact that Fi §- 90 ' 

they are circumferential in plan to a round stem. 



threaded screw 
may be recom- 
mended as espe- 
\~Thread5 cially effective, 
although the or- 
dinary shaded, 
outline is suffici- 
ently distinct for 
ordinary pur- 
poses. "U n d e r 
the sub - caption 
"threads flat" in 
the square 
threaded screw 
the effect of un- 
Here the absence 



(Flat 

Shading 
> Outlined 

} Ordinary 
Outlines 





For showing 



41 



square threads at a smaller scale, the ordinary outline shading, of 
course, will suffice. Another method of shading square screw- 
threads, which is not shown here, is to employ convex line shad- 
ing, described in a preceding chapter— quite a tedious piece of 
work, at the whole. The proportioning of spaces of the pencil guide 
lines indicated on our illustration practically suffices for laying out 
the curved outline of shading described here. 

The correct manner of shading male and female screw-threads in 
proximity is shown in Fig. 90. The shading of the lower part of 
"A" is just the inverse of that of the upper portion. The slope of 



the female thread is also shown in the opposite direction, as the por- 
tion which is seen beyond the plane of section corresponds to the 
hidden part of the (male) thread of the bolt. This matter is sim- 
plified or conventionalized in " B" of the same figure ; make sure to 
keep the outline shading of thebolt and the female threading inside, 
and do not encroach upon the section-lined area on either side. 

The elevation of the Columbus, 0., Freight Station, on plate XL 
demonstrates finally how well a sketchy method of treating mas- 
onry, etc., adapts itself to architectural drawings. The treatment 
of the windows, especially, is well worth studying. 



42 







Cast Iron. 



Malleable Iron. 



Wrought Iron. 



Steel Casting. 




Steel Forging. 



is* 



inm 



W/'s. 






Lead. 





Zinc. 



Babbitt. 



Wires. 





Brass. 




Bronze. 



1 


1 



Glass. 



Rubber or 
Vulcanite. 



Leather; 




Asbestos 
or Fiber. 



PLATE I. 







Brick Masonry. 



Fire Brick or Terracotta. 



Ashlar. 





Zj* 


&~2 




-4* 




i^- 


-~^^±^ 


^?<p 


y-y . 


^^s 





i 



Cinde 



ling. 






Rubble, Coursed. 



Rubble. Uncoursed. 



Riprap. 



Ordinary Concrete. 



9 ."J. 5° CO-w:' 

'■?■>' ;j>j^. 
'9 •■■'J-'-:; ?-'■ 



'a>. 



'O: 



■ J 



^J>^3 



Gravel 
Concrete. 




Cinder 
Concrete. 









>^&>" - - 


■ o~. .-*-.; r' 


i 





^ Concrete,^ Rubble. 






Expanded Metal Reinforcement. 






Cement, Mortar 
or Plaster. 






sss 



.-.O". 



Wire Reinforcement. 




Asphalt on Concrete. 



PLATE 



Water. 



Sand. 



Silt. 






Marl. 




Gravel. 



- #^.\ .-•' ^ --f.^-^'^V; 



Earth, Original. 






^v 



Earth, Filling. 




Rock, Amorphous. 




Rock, Stratified. 




Undefined. 



Mud. 



Puddle. 



V<V / //// // // / // / / / s ' 

V/////////////////// 



'////AW 



Clay. 






/- Z' 0/,°,' >■/?//, ,/'/>■>,>', 



',"/ ?',<>'*. 



Gravel, Mixed 
with Clay. 



1 


"l!l 


llll 


1 1 III ! 
i |l 


'- 



Soapstone. 




Loam. 



PLATE II 



Quicksand. 





Hardpan. 




Sand, Loam and Boulders. 







£\0. 



fOpt# 



-■'■■O. 



Boulders and Cobbles with Sand. 



VVvXV^>^VyM^7V* 


*$y/>$ 


7^)^/. /fScfa^MZ. 






t$M 




J 



Clay with Hardpan and 
Boulders. 





Hardpan with Cobbles. 





Fascines. 




Brick Pa 



vmg. 




Block Paving. 





Variously Dimensioned Wood and Timber Sections. 



Ry. Tie. 



Pile. 



PLATE IV. 



', ,/, 



z?_- 






_ - 7~-~\ - 



o' 



: : 



l?r?Sfl 



-'■■—".: 



ZZ:'Z-: 



V «S 



13 

WestEnd. 



Amherst, N. 5. 



:."- ''.-v- '''_j 




Bore Hole at 
Sugar Refinery. 



I --------- '-, y 



Boring at Aulat. 




SECTION OF 
COVERED 
FILTER BED. 




SECTIONS OF WELL BORINGS. 



MANHOLE SECTION. 



PLATE V. 



o' r z' 3' 4' 5' 6' 

Li-^-l 1 1 ! I I 




Vertical Section A-B. 
FUNNEL-SHAPED SPILLWAY. 



STANDARD 
PILE AND TRESTLE BRIDGE. 



PLATE VI 




Planof Invert. 
DETAILS OF INVERT 



PLATE VII. 




Completed b'ne - ■ 
UnderConsiruction: •»•—.-.- 
Proposed Extension: ••••••••••• 



MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
WHITE PASS & YUKON RY. 





(jjJDjjjjdjjij 
aj_ijj=ijjjjj j_a i| 



i 



sun 

j 
_ 








NORTH SEA COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. 



CHICAGO BUSINESS CENTER. 




Railways - 
Vacad. Roads: = 



X-r 



'5 10 

■ ' ' - 



30 



Miles- 

MAP OF PUERTO RICO. 



PLATE VII 



(Vwu^w^uVV^ - 



SECTIONAL 
ELEVATION 

OF 
CAISSON 




-::-.: 



■ 12 8 — 



■EI.425SA2 



Half Cross Section. Half End Elevation. 







7'5 - 

Section A-B. 



Longitudinal Section. 

CONCRETE CHANNEL AND MASONRY PORTAL OF SEWER. 





Longitudinal Section. 

PLAYFORD STOKER. 



SeSionand Elevation trarevereeto Bridge Axis, showing Bulkhead Sectionshow.nqins.de. 

CAISSON, NEW EAST RIVER BRIDGE. 



PLATE IX. 







K> JO 







Operating House 
(onMrddle5parj 



Members V,W,X,Y,2 are 
each Composed of 
two Channels with 
* birder Lacing Bars between. 



~ Dz ': ~ ' 



Bottom of Channel, B. -IS.0 



ElevoHon. 



PLATE X. 



C/.IOS.33 




iZStSSr. 



1 izetbst i 



- 345 



I I I 

k— 6Z'.5-^k-6Z'5- A — W.ff— H 

I 
— ■ >K- 



Z59.'0 ■ 



K- 

4c 



HARLEM RIVER BRIDGE 



560' 0' 



-2507 0— -j 



Enlarged 

Isometric View 

Showing Portion 

of Top 




Plan 



Section A— A. 



5ftw?e r<7/? 




TIMBER CRIB DETAILS. 



5ftwe, Ranqed Random (RP^I 

End Elevation. 

COLUMBUS, (0.) 

FREIGHT STATION. 



PLATE XI 



AUG 6 1904 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



019 971 096 5 




